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British, English, Afrikaners, Dutch and Germans. |
Anglo-Africans are primarily White African people of largely British descent who live or come from Sub-Saharan Africa and are Anglophone. A large majority live in South Africa. Along with Afrikaners, Anglo-Africans are officially grouped as White South Africans, comprising 39% of the total White South African demographic.
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Ethnicity is a politically loaded topic in South Africa. While some English speakers refer to themselves as "British", the phrase Anglo African is more generally used to refer to English speakers in Africa, particularly Sub-Saharan Africa. The majority live in South Africa and other countries in Southern Africa including Zimbabwe, Namibia, Zambia, Tanzania, Lesotho, and Swaziland. Many also come from Kenya, with smaller numbers residing in Nigeria. Though the majority of Anglo-Africans are of British and Irish descent, their numbers also include peoples of French Huguenot, Portuguese, Spanish, German, Jewish and Italian ancestry who speak English as their first language.
An early reference to Anglo African as a term for British settlers in Africa is Walter H. Wills' "The Anglo-African Who's Who and Biographical Sketchbook, 1907" which contains the details of nearly 2,000 prominent men and women of Edwardian Africa.
Unlike the Afrikaners, Anglo Africans have not constituted a coherent political or cultural entity in South Africa, hence the absence of a commonly accepted term, although 'English South African' or 'English-speaking South African' are much used.
An Afrikaans term for Anglo African is rooinek, which literally translates as "red neck" (can be considered derogatory depending on context)[2] but is not the equivalent of the American term "red neck". It arose as a nickname in the early days of settlement. There are many theories to explain this epithet, such as it being a reference to the then red collars of British military uniforms, or that it stems from the red markings the British farmers put on their imported Merino breed of sheep, but the most commonly accepted theory is that it relates to the fact they sunburnt easily, because unlike the Afrikaners they were new to Africa and so dressed inappropriately (i.e. wore inadequate hats, e.g. sola topees (pith helmets), or no hat at all). This term is not related to the American term redneck (a derogatory term for certain segments of rural North Americans); although both are probably derived from the idea of a sunburnt neck, in South Africa it was due to the British being unused to the African sun, while in America it's probably due to the fact that most "Rednecks" spent much of their time working outdoors.
Although there were small temporary British settlements along the West African coast from the 1700s onwards, British settlement in Africa began in earnest only at the end of the eighteenth century, in the Cape of Good Hope.
British settlement in the Cape gained momentum following the success of the second British annexation of the Cape from the Dutch East India Company, and the subsequent encouragement of settlers in Albany ("Settler Country") in the Eastern Cape in an effort to consolidate the colony's eastern frontier following the Cape Frontier Wars against the Xhosa.
As Britain expanded the Cape Colony northwards into Khoikhoi and San territory, many Britons settled in the region, but developed a culture distinct from that in Britain; a culture which had similarities to developing Australian and Afrikaner cultures.
Livingstone famously explored southern Africa, and was the first European to set eyes on Victoria Falls. He is a key character in Anglo-African history, being one of the first well-known Britons to believe his heart was in Africa.
In the late nineteenth century, the discovery of gold in the Witwatersrand and diamonds in Kimberley further encouraged colonisation by Britons, Australians, Americans, and Canadians. Following the defeat of the Afrikaners after the First and Second Boer Wars, Britain annexed the Boer Republics of the Transvaal and Orange Free State.
Cecil Rhodes dreamt of a British Africa from Cape Town to Cairo, and the BSAC conquered Mashonaland, Matabeleland, and some settlements further north, which became known as Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe and Zambia). The search for gold drove expansion north into Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe, Zambia, and Malawi). Simultaneously, British settlers began expansion into the fertile uplands (often called the "White Highlands") of British East Africa (now Kenya and Tanzania). With the advent of the post-World War II decolonization movement, black nationalist guerrilla forces, such as the Mau Mau in Kenya and ZANU in Zimbabwe, aided by Soviet expertise and weapons, clamored for independence. In Rhodesia, the Anglo community developed something of a fortress mentality in the 1960s and 1970s, as Rhodesia's Unilateral Declaration of Independence was recognized neither by Great Britain nor the Commonwealth of Nations. After Rhodesia's independence in 1980, its Anglo-African population declined sharply; tens of thousands of white Zimbabwe citizens were driven off their lands and property, with many of those remaining being intimidated and threatened by the governmental, political, and paramilitary organizations. As a result, thousands of Anglo-Africans were killed[3], pushed out, deported or went into exile from the original British colonies, and only a few thousand British settlers remained after independence. In spite of it, in all of these colonies, a number of well connected extremely wealthy settlers remained to live following independence and the introduction of self-rule in the second half of the twentieth century.
Following the ideological rise of anti-colonialism throughout the Empire, many British protectorates and colonies were granted independence.
Resistance to the British government’s adopted policy of no independence before majority rule (NIBMAR), resulted in the unilateral declaration of independence (UDI) of the Rhodesian government on 11 November 1965. The NIBMAR policy was perceived as irresponsible by supporters of the governing Rhodesian Front party, led by Ian Smith. Not long after the UDI a protracted Bush War was fought in Rhodesia until 1979.
Most English-speaking whites in South Africa supported the United Party of Jan Smuts, which favoured close relations with the United Kingdom and the Commonwealth, rather than the Afrikaans-speaking Nationalists, many of whom, like John Vorster, supported Nazi Germany during the Second World War.
Many opposed moves to make the country a republic, voting "no" in the 1960 referendum, but following the establishment of a republic in 1961, and South Africa's consequent withdrawal from the Commonwealth, other English-speaking whites began to support the National Party.
In spite of being perceived as more politically liberal than Afrikaners, in the 1992 referendum in which whites were asked whether or not they supported the negotiated reforms begun by State President F.W. de Klerk two years earlier, election analysts reported that support to dismantle apartheid among the Afrikaners was actually slightly higher than among English speakers.[4] South Africa became fully democratic in 1994.
From 1994, after the apartheid era in South Africa, Anglo-African population has numerically stagnated or decreased due to a low birth rate and emigration. As a reason for their decision to leave, many blame the high crime rate, real or perceived corruption, poor service delivery and the affirmative action policies of the government.
Since the early 1990s, hundreds of thousands of Anglo-Africans have left the nation to start new lives and fortunes abroad. Despite high emigration rates, a high rate of white foreign immigrants have settled the country, especially from countries such as the United Kingdom and Zimbabwe. For example, by 2005, an estimated 212,000 British citizens were residing in South Africa. By 2011, this number may have grown to 500,000.[5]
There have been increasing incidents of racism against white South Africans since 1994. In particular the actions of racist police personnel towards white victims have attracted media attention.[6] White men arrested and held in overcrowded cells on minor or spurious charges have taken legal action against the government, as many have been raped and assaulted by violent criminals (often rape and murder suspects) held in the same cells.[7]
Since 1994 close to three thousand farmers have been murdered in thousands of farm attacks[8] Genocide Watch has theorized that farm attacks constitute early warning signs of genocide against Afrikaners and has criticised the South African government for its inaction on the issue, pointing out that the murder rate for them ("ethno-European farmers" in their report, which also included non-Afrikaner farmers of European race) is four times that of the general South African population.[9]
Since 2003, the number of British migrants coming to South Africa has risen by 50%. An estimated 20,000 British migrants moved to South Africa in 2007. South Africa is ranked as the top destination for British retirees and pensioners in Africa. There have also been a significant number of arrivals of white Zimbabweans of British blood, fleeing their home country in light of the economic and political problems currently facing the country. As well as recent arrivals, a significant number of white British Zimbabwean settlers emigrated to South Africa in the start of independence in Zimbabwe in 1980.
Efforts are being made by a few Anglo-Africans to secure minority rights which would give them the power to veto which was initially sought during negotiations to bring about the end of apartheid [10] however would contradict South Africa's world renowned post-apartheid constitution which is based on non-sexist, non-racial principles; principals of equal rights for all detailed in the ruling ANC's freedom charter [1] which was the framework for the new constitution. However, the majority of them, like the Afrikaners, are supporting South Africa's official opposition, the Democratic Alliance although the party, like the ruling ANC[11] and most others, is a multi-racial party, and the majority of the DA's members and voters are not white.[12]
In South Africa, Anglo-African is a term which is commonly replaced by English-speaking White South African. When European immigrants (e.g. Germans, Poles and Croats) arrive in South Africa, they will usually adopt either English or Afrikaans culture (although they usually retain some of their own cultures).
They constitute roughly one-third of the white population of South Africa, as opposed to the Afrikaners who constitute two-thirds of the white population. The English-speaking population of South Africa is mostly dominant in the KwaZulu-Natal province and in cities such as Johannesburg and Cape Town.
Fearful of crime and the possibility of South Africa's adopting a policy towards white people like that in Zimbabwe (although those policies have not been adopted and would be unconstitutional), a significant number of Anglo-Africans have emigrated abroad, mainly to white-majority western countries such as the United Kingdom and Australia.
Many also leave as they find it much harder to find employment than their parents did during apartheid as preferential treatment of white people in the workplace has been outlawed and they also face competition from a growing number of educated Black, Coloured and Indian South Africans, as well as the Employment Equity Act, 55 of 1998 which enforce race proportionality and equal opportunity for people of colour, women of all races, and people with disabilities.
The act was intended to "promote the constitutional right of equality and the exercise of true democracy", "eliminate unfair discrimination in employment", "ensure the implementation of employment equity to redress the effects of discrimination", and "achieve a diverse workforce broadly representative of our people". The act states that “as a result of apartheid and other discriminatory laws and practices, there are disparities in employment, occupation and income within the national labour market, and that those disparities create such pronounced advantages for certain categories of people that they cannot be redressed simply by repealing discriminatory laws.”[13]
However, some feel that such laws unfairly target whites and is a "reverse apartheid" system or a "new form of apartheid"[14] as a result of the occasional illegal misapplication of the Employment Equity Act, 55 of 1998,[13] despite the fact that similar laws were not invented in South Africa (a widely held view by whites) and have existed elsewhere such as the United States (see affirmative action) to give ethnicities who have high unemployment and who were previously discriminated against fair opportunities. Despite this, recent data shows that the corporate sector in South Africa is still dominated by white males.[15][16]
For the above stated reasons, a significant number of Anglo-Africans have emigrated to countries such as the United Kingdom, Canada, United States, Australia and New Zealand. Many Anglo-Africans from South Africa, Zimbabwe, Zambia, Malawi, and Tanzania have even settled Mozambique after the time it became a member of Commonwealth in 1992 and Namibia which came under South African rule after the First World War. Other Anglo-Africans also settled Ireland, Netherlands, Spain, Argentina, Mexico and Brazil.
A large number of young Anglo-Africans are taking advantage of working holiday visas made available by the United Kingdom and other Commonwealth countries to gain work experience. The favourable exchange rate with the South African rand (ZAR) also increases the attractiveness of international experience.
Anglo Africans generally enjoy an outdoor lifestyle and fondness for sport. The braai,[17] although originally Afrikaans, is a popular way to gather friends. Another pastime is that of visiting game reserves, hiking, camping and recreational angling. There is a particular appreciation of country life and farms are often bought as weekend retreats. Farmers themselves generally prefer holiday houses at the coast. In other ways the culture of Anglo-Africans is more Anglo than African; afternoon tea - in fact, tea at any time of day - is still widespread as are pastimes such as gardening and reading. Families who live in the country are usually familiar with previously practical pastimes such as riding and shooting. Riding is popular in town and country alike and drag-hunting is carried out by the Cape Hunt and the Rand Hunt. Polo is more accessible in South Africa than in the United Kingdom and very popular amongst farmers. The most avidly followed (and participated in) sports are rugby, cricket and tennis. Many Anglo-Africans will follow South African as well as British news and watch BBC and Sky News rather than CNN, and prefer British humor as expressed by Fawlty Towers and the Blackadder series. There is a widespread appreciation for British things and a certain cachet attached to British books, paints, clothes, fabric, magazines, stationary, china and toys; most Anglo-Africans travel to Britain at least once in their lives to discover their ancestral homeland where some may have friends and even long lost relatives. Most, having been brought up on British nursery rhymes, history, and literature, are more conversant with Britain and its ways than is usually natural for people who have never lived there, or even visited. Conversely some Tanzanian and Kenyan Anglo-Africans occasionally affect Afrikaner accents and use Afrikaans as a badge to distinguish themselves from contract workers and tourists.
Many Anglo Africans speak a unique dialect of English. However, even in South Africa, there are geographical differences in the English that Anglo-Africans speak; most can clearly tell the difference between the languid accent of Durban, Cape Town's supposedly disdainful drawl, and the near-Received Pronunciation of Johannesburg's northern suburbs and the Natal Midlands. Although the South African slang listed below is true of many young South Africans, it would be unusual to hear it used amongst older Anglo-Africans or people who went to private schools where it would be thought charmingly provincial and only used in jest. Anglo-Africans who use Received Pronunciation will generally have an aversion to excessive South Africanisms in their speech as well as for regional British accents.
There are influences from Cape Malays, Afrikaners, and the Bantu languages. The common greeting 'Howzit!' comes from 'How is it?' and can be likened to the US 'Howdy', the Australian 'G'Day', the Irish 'Howya?' or the recent British 'All right?'. The considerable Afrikaans influence can be seen from words such as braai, trek, lekker, and ja having become common usage centuries ago. In South Africa many Zulu and Xhosa words (such as shongololo, muti, ubuntu, fundi etc.) are used.
| "bru" | male friend (shortening of brother, see also bru above) |
| "no" | a common speech disfluency or filler |
| "sarmie" | a sandwich |
| "shot" | thank you |
| "china/my china" | friend. Derived from Cockney "china plate", rhyming slang for "mate"; alternatively, from Zulu "mchana", meaning "friend". |
| "scheme" | to think that (e.g. "I scheme we should go home now"; usage evolved from the hyperbole "What are you scheming?" asked of a person deep in thought.) |
| "robot" | traffic light |
| "tune" | to talk to someone in a derogatory way, to insult someone ("Are you tuning me?"). |
| "higher grade" | a bit too complicated (from the South African matric division of exams into standard grade and higher grade) |
| "now now"/"just now" | From the Afrikaans "nou-nou" and "net-nou". An amount of time, could be anything from 5 seconds to 24 hours, could be past or future tense. i.e.: "I'll be done with it now now." or "He went out just now." |
Rhodes University situated in Grahamstown houses the Dictionary Unit for South African English.[18] The fourth edition of the Dictionary of South African English was released in 1991, and the Oxford Dictionary released its South African English dictionary in 2002. The English Academy of Southern Africa was founded in 1961. It is an association dedicated to promoting the effective use of English as a dynamic language in Southern Africa.[19]
English-speaking Africans have a long literary tradition, and have produced a number of notable novelists and poets, including Doris Lessing, Guy Butler, Olive Schreiner, (Ignatius) Roy(ston) Dunnachie Campbell and Denis Vincent Brutus. A traditional Anglo-African storybook is Sir Percy Fitzpatrick's Jock of the Bushveld, which describes his journey as a wagondriver with his dog Jock in the Bush. Other significant writers are Nadine Gordimer, Alan Paton, Peter Godwin, Alexandra Fuller, Bryce Courtenay and Cathy Buckle.
Anglo-Africans have influenced modern African arts, often incorporating other African cultures. (Harold) Athol (Lannigan) Fugard is a significant playwright. He was born of an Irish Catholic father and an Afrikaner mother and has always described himself as an Afrikaner, but he wrote in English to reach a larger audience. Sharlto Copley is a significant actor, producer and director. He starred in the Oscar nominated, South African film District 9 which was an international box office hit and received widespread critical acclaim throughout the world. District 9 drew heavily on metaphoric references to South Africa's apartheid history as well as many other more direct references to South African and African culture. Although an Anglo-African, Copley plays an Afrikaaner who experiences a similar "oppression" to that he once imposed on alien refugees from another planet. He also starred in the film remake of the 80's TV show The A-Team.
Notable Anglo-African musicians include Dave Matthews, who emigrated to the United States, and is therefore more generally identified as American. Johnny Clegg, though his work is heavily influenced by indigenous music . Wrex Tarr performed the distinctly Rhodesian comedy song Cocky Robin based on Chilapalapa. John Edmond was a popular singer, songwriter, entertainer and storyteller during the Rhodesian Bush War. Trevor Rabin, now a naturalised American, formerly a member of Rabbitt and Yes and now a film composer. Manfred Mann, a founding member and namesake of Manfred Mann and Manfred Mann's Earth Band. Seether is a post-grunge band originally founded by Anglo-African members, but now including Americans.
Anglo-Africans and their British forebears have been extensively involved in the founding and development of numerous educational institutions across Africa.
There are four universities in South Africa that are considered to come from a "liberal" South African tradition that were established by Anglo-Africans, opposed apartheid by admitting limited numbers of black students. The South African College was founded in 1829 and later split into the University of Cape Town and the South African College Schools. The University of Natal has been merged with the University of Durban-Westville to become the University of KwaZulu-Natal. The University of Witwatersrand was originally founded in Kimberley in 1896 as the "South African School of Mines" and is now based in Johannesburg. Finally, Rhodes University was established in 1904, with an initial grant from the trustees of the Rhodes Trust.
There are two categories of schools founded by Anglo-Africans or their British missionary predecessors, those originally meant for the education of the children of Anglo-Africans and those developed or founded by Anglo-Africans for the education of the indigenous population.
The first category includes both famous Southern African independent (private) schools like Plumtree School in Matabeleland, Zimbabwe, the Diocesan College in Cape Town, the Wykeham Collegiate in Pietermaritzburg and St John's College in Johannesburg and prestige government schools like Maritzburg College in Pietermaritzburg and the King Edward VII School in Johannesburg. A feature of these schools was that the student body was initially racially segregated, however all these schools have subsequently been desegregated.
The second category of schools includes South African institutions like the Lovedale Institute, which was responsible for the education of many famous Africans including Thabo Mbeki, Chris Hani and Sir Seretse Khama, Tiger Kloof Educational Institution[20] and St Matthew's High School. Many of these missionary institutions were seriously impacted by the Bantu Education Act of 1953, and the Historic Schools Restoration Project[21] was recently launched by Archbishop Njongonkulu Ndungane with the mission "to revitalise the rich heritage of the historical schools and transform them into sustainable and aspirational African institutions of educational and cultural excellence."
Cricket, rugby union, tennis and golf are generally considered to be the most popular sports among Anglo-Africans.
Cricket in Africa and particularly Zimbabwe has been dominated by Anglo-Africans. Many of their best players include Andy Flower, Heath Streak, Brendan Taylor and Ray Price. Cricket in South Africa also features numerous Anglo-Africans, such as Graeme Smith and Neil McKenzie, both of whom have played for South Africa.
The contribution of Anglo-Africans to South African rugby has continued to the present; other notables include the coach who led the Springboks to victory in the 1995 Rugby World Cup, Kitch Christie, Bobby Skinstad and Percy Montgomery, the Springboks' all-time leader in appearances and points. Jody Scheckter won the F1 World Championship. Anglo-Africans have also had notable success in African rallying, while former Rhodesia in particular has produced several world champion motorcycle road racers including Jim Redman and Kork Ballington.
The English cricket team of 2010, which retained the 2010–11 Ashes series in Australia, received a significant contribution from Anglo-Africans. Captain Andrew Strauss, wicketkeeper Matt Prior, batsman Kevin Pietersen, batsman Jonathan Trott and coach Andy Flower are all Anglo-Africans.
The term "pommy" or "pommies" in plural is also used colloquially in South Africa, as in other parts of the world such as Australia, to describe a South African of British descent.[22] (See List of South African slang words
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